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1. Selection of Educational Needs This is the first and most important step . Before designing any curriculum, it is necessary to identify what learners actually need to learn. These needs help in deciding the aims, objectives, and content of education. Types of Needs:               1.   Felt Needs: These are the needs directly felt or expressed by students, teachers, or the community through surveys, interviews, or field studies. (Example: Students need computer literacy in today’s world.)               2.  Observed Needs: These are identified by experts or obtained from secondary sources such as research reports, examination results, or statistical data. (Example: Low reading levels observed in a school suggest a need for a reading   improvement program.)               3.  Real Needs: These are the final priority needs , determined after compari...

1. Child-Centered Curriculum Focuses on the needs, interests, and abilities of the child. The teacher acts as a guide, and learning happens through activities and experiences that the child enjoys. Example: Learning through play, storytelling, or exploration. 2. Subject-Centered Curriculum Organized around specific subjects like science, geography, or mathematics. The main goal is to develop knowledge, habits, and skills related to each subject. Learning is often textbook-based and structured. 3. Activity-Based Curriculum Emphasizes learning by doing through activities, experiments, and projects. Encourages creativity and hands-on learning rather than rote memorization. Example: Science experiments, role-play, and craft work. 4. Experience-Centered Curriculum Learning is based on the experiences of the students. The focus is on real-life situations and practical knowledge. Encourages reflection and critical thinking. 5. Core Curriculum Includes essential subjects that are necessary for...

STEP 1 – Selection of the Problem This is the starting point of action research. In education, the teacher identifies a problem or issue that affects students’ learning or classroom performance. Examples: Students are not able to read fluently. Many students do not complete their homework. The class participation is low. The problem should be practical, specific, and something the teacher can work on directly. STEP 2 – Defining the Problem Once the problem is selected, it must be clearly defined so that it is easy to understand and study. In this step, the teacher writes down exactly what the problem is , who is affected , and how it appears . Example: “Many students in Class 1 are unable to read small English words correctly during reading sessions.” This makes the problem clear and measurable. STEP 3 – Delimiting the Problem Here, the teacher sets limits or boundaries for the problem to make it manageable. This means focusing only on a particular group, class, ...

On the Basis of Objective of Research 1. Basic or Fundamental Research a) Also called pure or fundamental research. b) A type of scientific research with the aim of improving scientific theories for better understanding and prediction of natural or other phenomena. 2. Applied Research a) Methodology used to solve a specific, practical issue affecting an individual or a group. b) Involves scientific study and research applied in business, medicine, and education. c) Helps find solutions to improve health, solve scientific problems, or develop new technology. 3. Action Research a) Research initiated to solve an immediate problem. b) Involves reflective processes of progressive problem-solving. c) Conducted by individuals working in teams or as part of a community of practice to improve how they address issues and solve problems. On the Basis of Nature of Process & Method Used 1. Experimental Research a) Conducted with a scientific approach. b) Some variables are kept constant, while ...

Objectives of Action Research  1. Improve Teaching Practices – To help teachers reflect on and enhance their instructional strategies, methods, and classroom management. 2. Solve Classroom Problems – To identify and address specific issues or challenges faced by students or teachers in the teaching–learning process. 3. Enhance Student Learning – To find better ways to make learning more effective, engaging, and meaningful for students. 4. Bridge Theory and Practice – To apply educational theories in real classroom situations and test their effectiveness. 5. Encourage Teacher Professional Development – To promote continuous learning, self-reflection, and growth in teachers’ professional skills. 6. Promote Collaboration – To involve teachers, students, and sometimes parents in solving educational problems collectively. 7. Context-Specific Solutions – To generate practical solutions tailored to the needs of a particular school, class, or group of students. 8. Develop Innovation ...

  Principles of Teaching General Principles of Teaching   Principle of Definite Aim Principle of Learning by doing Principle of Correlation Principle of Adaptability & Feasibility Principle of Democratic Behavior Principle of Past Experiences Principle of Child Centeredness Principle of Individual Differences Principle of Linking with Actual Life Principle of Planning Principle of Selection Principle of Effective Strategy Principle of Conducive Environment & Proper Control Principle of Remedial Teaching Principle of Division Principle of Revision 1. Principle of Definite Aim Aims of teaching should be clear to the teacher. It makes teaching and learning effective, interesting, precise and definite. Definite aim helps both teachers and students remain on the right track.   2. Principle of Learning by doing (/Activity) Teaching is effective and productive, when students actively participate in...